Briefly describe the following:
$(a)$ Transcription
$(b)$ Polymorphism
$(c)$ Translation
$(d)$ Bioinformatics

(N/A) Transcription: Transcription is the process of synthesizing $RNA$ from a $DNA$ template. $A$ segment of $DNA$ is copied into $mRNA$. The process starts at the promoter region and terminates at the terminator region. The segment of $DNA$ between these two is the transcription unit. It requires $RNA$ polymerase,$DNA$ template,ribonucleotides,and cofactors like $Mg^{2+}$. The three stages are Initiation,Elongation,and Termination. $DNA$-dependent $RNA$ polymerase and initiation factor $(\sigma)$ bind to the promoter. The enzyme unwinds the $DNA$ and uses the template strand to synthesize $mRNA$ using nucleoside triphosphates. Upon reaching the terminator,the $mRNA$ and enzyme are released,aided by the termination factor $(\rho)$.
$(b)$ Polymorphism: Polymorphism is a form of genetic variation where distinct nucleotide sequences exist at a particular site in a $DNA$ molecule. This heritable mutation occurs at a high frequency in a population. It arises due to mutations in somatic or germ cells. Germ cell mutations are transmitted to offspring,leading to accumulation of variations,which is crucial for evolution and speciation.
$(c)$ Translation: Translation is the process of polymerizing amino acids to form a polypeptide chain. The triplet sequence of base pairs in $mRNA$ defines the order of amino acids. It involves Initiation,Elongation,and Termination. $tRNA$ is charged using $ATP$. The small ribosomal subunit binds to $mRNA$ at the start codon $(AUG)$,followed by the large subunit. During elongation,the ribosome moves along $mRNA$,and amino acids brought by $tRNA$ are linked by peptide bonds. When the ribosome reaches a $STOP$ codon ($UAA, UAG,$ or $UGA$),translation terminates,and the polypeptide chain is released.
$(d)$ Bioinformatics: Bioinformatics is the application of computational and statistical techniques to molecular biology. It addresses problems in managing and analyzing biological data. It developed significantly after the Human Genome Project $(HGP)$ to manage the massive data generated. It involves creating biological databases and developing algorithms to predict protein structures,functions,and analyze relationships between sequences.