Explain the mechanism of breathing with neat labelled sketches.

(N/A) Breathing involves two stages:
$(1)$ Inspiration: During which atmospheric air is drawn in.
$(2)$ Expiration: By which the alveolar air is released out.
The movement of air into and out of the lungs is carried out by creating a pressure gradient between the lungs and the atmosphere.
- Inspiration occurs if the pressure within the lungs (intra-pulmonary pressure) is less than the atmospheric pressure,i.e.,there is a negative pressure in the lungs with respect to atmospheric pressure.
- Similarly,expiration takes place when the intra-pulmonary pressure is higher than the atmospheric pressure.
The diaphragm and a specialised set of muscles - external and internal intercostals between the ribs,help in the generation of such gradients.
Inspiration is initiated by the contraction of the diaphragm,which increases the volume of the thoracic chamber in the antero-posterior axis.
The contraction of external inter-costal muscles lifts up the ribs and the sternum,causing an increase in the volume of the thoracic chamber in the dorso-ventral axis.
The overall increase in the thoracic volume causes a similar increase in pulmonary volume.
An increase in pulmonary volume decreases the intra-pulmonary pressure to less than the atmospheric pressure,which forces the air from outside to move into the lungs,i.e.,inspiration.
Relaxation of the diaphragm and the inter-costal muscles returns the diaphragm and sternum to their normal positions and reduces the thoracic volume and thereby the pulmonary volume. This leads to an increase in intra-pulmonary pressure to slightly above the atmospheric pressure,causing the expulsion of air from the lungs,i.e.,expiration.
We have the ability to increase the strength of inspiration and expiration with the help of additional muscles in the abdomen.
On an average,a healthy human breathes $12-16$ times/minute.
The volume of air involved in breathing movements can be estimated by using a spirometer,which helps in the clinical assessment of pulmonary functions.